Zoonotic Foodborne Pathogens | Essay

Zoonotic Foodborne Pathogens | Essay Zoonoses describe diseases that can be transmitted from vertebrate animals to humans. Zoonotic diseases are common and are caused by various types of agents, such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, or parasites [12]. According to the study by Taylor et al. 2001 that out of the 1415 infectious organisms that are pathogenic to humans 61% of them are zoonotic [8]. And over 200 zoonoses related diseases are known [12]. Zoonoses related diseases can be caught from foodborne zoonoses, non-foodborne zoonoses, helminthic parasitic zoonoses, protozoan parasitic zoonoses and zoonotic ectoparasites. However this work is only focusing on the common bacterial related foodborne zoonoses. Every year bacterial foodborne zoonoses is the cause of millions of people becoming ill [12]. The most significant bacterial zoonotic pathogens associated with foodborne disease are Campylobacter, Salmonella and Escherichia coli O157:H7 [5]. Other bacterial foodborne zoonotic pathogens are Mycobacteria, Listeria, and Brucella all of which are from dairy products. The zoonotic foodborne pathogen Campylobacter causes the illness campylobacteriosis which causes often bloody diarrhoea, malaise, fever, nausea, abdominal pain and vomiting. The incubation period is usually between 2-5 days before onset of symptoms. Most Campylobacter infections are mild, without the need for hospitalization and with complete recovery within 10 days. However the severity of the disease varies and in some cases may be life-threatening or resulting in long term health problems. People that tend to die by the disease are often suffering from immuno-deficiencies, or other diseases like liver disease or cancer. Guillain-BarrÑ  syndrome (GBS) is a complication of Campylobacter infection that occurs in approximately 1 in every 1000 reported cases of campylobacteriosis (CDC, 2008, May 21). GBS an autoimmune disease that targets the nerves cells of the body may lead to permanent paralysis. Another neurological related syndrome that may occur subsequent to campylobacter iosis is Miller Fisher Syndrome. [2, 5, 10] In the UK there are approximately 55,000 cases a year of Campylobacter infection. Campylobacter jejuni being the predominant Campylobacter species that causes foodborne gastrointestinal illnesses in humans, other similar closely related species that causes diseases in humans are C. coli and C. fetus. C. jejuni are curved gram-negative, microaerophilic, thermophilic rods with optimum growth temperature at 40oC and low oxygen concentrations. It is these qualities of C. jejuni that enables it to colonise the intestines of warm-blooded birds and mammals. The reservoir for C. jejuni ranges from healthy domestic and wild animals such as dogs, cats, cattle, pigs, sheep, birds, chickens, rodents, ducks and geese. As C. jejuni is ubiquitous in nature food products particularly poultry meat, beef and pork are at risk of environmental contamination during processing. Campylobacter can survive in livestock water troughs, stock ponds, lakes and dairy lagoons all of which may introduce the infecti on into the animal flocks. Also rodents, wild birds, faecal contaminated equipment and footwear may all serves as potential vehicles of transmission of bacteria into the animal flocks. Once the infection is introduced into the flock rapid transmission between the animals occur with subsequent colonization of commercial meat that if undercooked may lead to foodborne enteritis in the consumer. Poultry meat tend to carry high bacterial numbers of C. jejuni, being the main source of infection in humans as it has a high level of consumption so the risk is greater. The consumption of unpasteurized milk should also be avoided as it is an identified source of Campylobacter, but pasteurization of dairy products eliminates the pathogen. [2, 5, 10] Control and prevention measures have been established in order to reduce Campylobacter pathogens entering the human food chain. These control strategies are aimed at preventing colonization of the pathogen in food animals through the implementation of strict bio-security measures, good hygiene practices at harvest level in an attempt to control and minimise the level of faecal contamination during poultry transportation, slaughtering and carcase dressing. Other incorporated control methods include decontamination strategies, rodent control, exclusion of wild animals and insect eradication that are potential carriers of the pathogen, and chlorination of drinking water to 2ppm. Gamma irradiation of animal carcasses is also effective at reducing the colonization levels of the pathogen in the carcass, but this method although endorsed by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and others is not well accepted by consumers. Increased public awareness of foodborne Campylobacter infection is nec essary as in the end the only measure to ensure reduce risk is at the consumer level through increased hygiene when storing, preparing and handling raw-meat to avoid cross-contamination via utensils and through adequately cooking of the poultry at recommended temperatures by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to ensure destruction of C. jejuni. Undercooked poultry has been responsible for >50% of cases of C. jejuni. [2, 5, 10] The second most common bacterial foodborne zoonoses pathogen reported is Salmonella which are gram negative rod-shaped bacteria that are closely related to the Escherichia, and is responsible for causing salmonellosis. Salmonellosis is associated with enteric infections and since the discovery of the first strain of Salmonella in 1885 called Salmonella choleraesuis there have been over 2300 strains known to cause salmonellosis; the most common being S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium. In the UK there are approximately 11,000 cases a year reported on Salmonella which causes gastroenteritis. Symptoms include diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, and fever. In severe cases the diarrhoea may be bloody just like in Campylobacter infections. The incubation period for Salmonella varies from 6 to 72 hours. Complications may also arise such as bacteraemia or Reiters syndrome. Bacteraemia occurs when the Salmonella pathogen enters the infected individuals bloodstream. Reiters syndrome although uncommon may result from Salmonella infection, it is a disorder associated with at least two of three seemingly unrelated symptoms: reactive arthritis, eye infection and urinary tract infection. The people most susceptible to contracting Salmonella infection include immuno-compromised individuals such as AID sufferers, cancer patients, or transplant recipients. Or individuals that are in close proximity to other infected people, such as sharing a household, or individuals that possess pet lizards, birds, or reptiles. Salmonella has a low infectious dose, probably from 15-20 cells. [3] Salmonella are present in the environment as well as cold and warm blooded animals. The Salmonella serotypes in food animal species like poultry can be divided into host specific and non-host specific infections. The host specific infections are those that affect the bird host and are of little public concern, such as S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum. They are the common serotypes implicated in poultry disease. As for the non-host specific infections they are the cause of Salmonella foodborne poisoning in humans such as S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium. Most of the serotypes associated with human foodborne disease cause no disease in poultry, but can be spread by them between flocks and once in the food chain the product is contaminated food. Poultry meat and products like eggs are the main source of Salmonella infection in humans. [3] Similar to the Campylobacter control strategies, on farm prevention and control methods are undertaken to control Salmonella in poultry. Strict bio-security measures and farm pathogen reduction strategies are the first steps in minimising the occurrence of foodborne pathogens in eggs and meat. Surveillance of poultry flocks for Salmonella should be conducted to identify any infected flock which can then be immediately dealt with using appropriate measures to minimise spread within the flock and the risk of transmission to humans. Infected flock should be slaughtered and disposed of appropriately to reduce human exposure to Salmonella. One of the ways in which poultry may contract Salmonella is through contaminated food, thus it is necessary to monitor the poultry feed status. It is recommended to use bactericidal treatment or heat treated food to prevent Salmonella contamination. Poultry food should also be contained in clean closed containers to prevent access by rodents or wild bir ds. Rodent control should be used as a repellent. Vaccines against Salmonella can also be used but should not be used as the sole control measure, rather as an additional prevention measure. Good hygiene practices should be used such as cleaning and disinfection of equipment and the bird house, disposal of litter in a safe manner especially contaminated waste to prevent exposure to humans, livestock and wild-life to Salmonella. The use of antimicrobials as a treatment of Salmonella infection in poultry should not be used as it may contribute to the development of antimicrobial resistance, or mask the infection during sampling. Also it is vital that public awareness and education of foodborne Salmonella infection is raised so that poultry consumers can take necessary precautions to avoid contracting the infection. The precautions that consumers can take include the cooking of meat adequately before consuming, cooking of eggs until the yoke is solid, not consuming food containing raw eggs, not consuming unpasteurized milk, and the washing of hands after handling any animals. [7, 10] The third and last foodborne bacterial disease to be discussed is the gram-negative rod-shaped bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) O157:H7. The O and H denotes the cell wall and flagella antigen number respectively. E. coli bacteria colonise the intestinal tract of warm blooded animals, such as humans and mammals. There have been over 700 serotypes identified but those that produce the Shiga toxin (Stx), such as E. coli O157:H7 have been associated with foodborne illnesses and is responsible for most of the E. coli related illnesses in humans. In the UK alone there are approximately 1,100 cases per year of E. coli O157:H7 with just a small dosage (

Reaction Paper on SONA 2015 Essay

â€Å"Hangga’t buo ang ating pananalig at tiwala, at hangga’t nagsisilbi tayong lakas ng isa’t isa, patuloy nating mapapatunayan na, â€Å"the Filipino is worth dying for†, â€Å"the Filipino is worth living for,† at idadagdag ko naman po: â€Å"The Filipino is definitely worth fighting for.† This is the highlight of the fifth State of the Nation Address by His Excellency Benigno Simeon Aquino III. The stand of believing in the democracy, believing that people with the government can make a change within his term. Since the death of his parents, the legacy still continues and I guess the legacy is in his heart believing that it’s not too late for changes in the Philippine government setting and also the economic and social status of the country. Based on the past State of the Nation Address of President Aquino, critics said that, this State of the Nation Address is not clearly stating the change that they expected to be. The changes w ithin his term is expected to be evident and must lift the Philippines from being the â€Å"Sick Man of Asia† to the â€Å"Rising Country in Asia†. see more:reaction paper about sona 2017 But for me, I guess for about 5 years of his term, I find him and his works in making everything possible is evident through his achievements. For the past five years, the system of education through his leadership is I guess changed and globally leveled the foreign and international standards. An example of this is the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). The Disbursement Acceleration Program contributed 1.6 billion pesos to TESDA’s Training for Work Scholarship Program. This amount enabled the graduation of 223,615 beneficiaries. 66 percent of these—or, 146,731 graduates—now have jobs. This is just one of the amazing changes that he and his leadership has made differences from the past administrations. Also, the poverty in the Philippines, not although changed bigtime but I guess through the little  steps, we can make change. We must invest in our most valuable resource: The Filipino people. Data from the National Economic Development Authority attests to this success. According to them, the 27.9 percent poverty rate during the first semester of 2012 went down to 24.9 percent for the same period in 2013. These three percentage points are equivalent to 2.5 million Filipinos who have crossed the poverty line. There are still many achievements that the President stated and had attest his success, or should I say â€Å"OUR† success. The Filipino people must help and also lift themselves up if they want change in the society, the government and also their own lives. Just like what the President said, â€Å"Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day. Teach a man to fish and you feed him for a lifetime.† The change must also come through the ideals of change by the people. I guess, if we want a change, a more evident change, it must come from the people. Helping themselves first, making themselves worthy for the society, and through this they can make change, with the partnership of the President and the government. After all, this is a â €Å"DEMOCRACY†, by the people, for the people.

Scientific Research Article Review Building Better...

Armand, Michel, and J-M. Tarascon. Building Better Batteries. Nature, vol. 451, no. 7179, (2008): 652-657. This article discusses how researchers must find a sustainable way of providing better batteries to match modern lifestyle changes in our present day. The main claim in this article is that researchers need to build a new battery and it must focus on being cheap and safe. This first reason they provide is lithium ion batteries need to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Through research, they found out lithium ion batteries are not the best option for electric cars. They provide another reason, through scientific lab experiments, that alternatives to the lithium battery need to be explored. Through these lab experiments, the metals†¦show more content†¦With this article, I plan to provide solutions for making the battery better by car industries and government funding further research. This source works in conjunction with my other source, â€Å"How Improved Batteries Will Make Electric Car Vehicles Competitive†, and provides similar reasons as to why the electric car ba ttery needs to be improved. I plan to find more articles on ways to promote future research towards batteries. Brand, Stephan, et al. Hybrid and Electric Low-Noise Cars Cause an Increase in Traffic Accidents Involving Vulnerable Road Users in Urban Areas. International Journal of Injury Control Safety Promotion, vol. 20, no. 4, Dec. 2013, pp. 339-341. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/17457300.2012.733714. This article discusses how electric and hybrid cars cause an increase in the amount of traffic accidents in urban areas. The main claim is that if more hybrid and electrics are produced, the more traffic accidents will occur. To make this argument, they provided two reasons. The first reason is cars with engines that produce no sound leads to more accidents. 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Atomic Number 2 on the Periodic Table

Helium is the element that is atomic number 2 on the periodic table. Each helium atom has 2 protons in its atomic nucleus. The atomic weight of the element is  4.0026. Helium does not readily form compounds, so it is known in its pure form as a gas. Fast Facts: Atomic Number 2 Element Name: HeliumElement Symbol: HeAtomic Number: 2Atomic Weight: 4.002Classification: Noble GasState of Matter: GasNamed For: Helios, the Greek Titan of the SunDiscovered By: Pierre Janssen, Norman Lockyer (1868) Interesting Atomic Number 2 Facts The element is named for the Greek god of the sun, Helios, because it was initially observed in a previously unidentified yellow spectral line during the 1868 solar eclipse. Two scientists observed the spectral line during this eclipse: Jules Janssen (France) and Norman Lockyer (Britain). The astronomers share credit for the element discovery.Direct observation of the element did not occur until 1895, when Swedish chemists Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet identified helium emanations from cleveite, a type of uranium ore.A typical helium atom contains 2 protons, 2 neutrons, and 2 electrons. However, atomic number 2 can exist without any electrons, forming what is called an alpha particle. An alpha particle has an electrical charge of 2 and is emitted during alpha decay.The isotope containing 2 protons and 2 neutrons is called helium-4. There are nine isotopes of helium, but only helium-3 and helium-4 are stable. In the atmosphere, there is one atom of helium-3 for every milli on helium-4 atoms. Unlike most elements, the isotopic composition of helium greatly depends on its source. So, the average atomic weight may not really apply to a given sample. Most of the helium-3 found today was present at the time of the Earths formation.At ordinary temperature and pressure, helium is an extremely light, colorless gas.Helium is one of the noble gases or inert gases, which means it has a complete electron valence shell so its not reactive. Unlike gas of atomic number 1 (hydrogen), helium gas exists as monatomic particles. The two gases have comparable mass (H2 and He). Single helium atoms are so small they pass between many other molecules. This is why a filled helium balloon deflates over time -- the helium escapes through tiny pores in the material.Atomic number 2 is the second most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen. However, the element is rare on Earth (5.2 ppm by volume in the atmosphere) because nonreactive helium is light enough that it can e scape Earths gravity and be lost to space. Some types of natural gas, such as that from Texas and Kansas, contain helium. The primary source of the element on Earth is from liquefaction from natural gas. The largest supplier of the gas is the United States. The source of helium is a non-renewable resource, so there may come a time when we run out of a practical source for this element.Atomic number 2 is used for party balloons, but its primary use is in the cryogenic industry for cooling superconducting magnets. The principal commercial use of helium is for MRI scanners. The element is also used as a purge gas, to grow silicon wafers and other crystals, and as a protective gas for welding. Helium is used for research into superconductivity and the behavior of matter at a temperature approaching absolute zero.One distinctive property of atomic number 2 is that this element cannot be frozen into a solid form unless it is pressurized. Helium remains liquid down to absolute zero under n ormal pressure, forming a solid at temperatures between 1 K and 1.5 K and 2.5 MPa pressure. Solid helium has been observed to possess a crystalline structure. Sources Hammond, C. R. (2004). The Elements, in  Handbook of Chemistry and Physics  (81st ed.). CRC press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.Hampel, Clifford A. (1968).  The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. pp.  256–268.Meija, J.; et al. (2016). Atomic weights of the elements 2013 (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 88 (3): 265–91.Shuen-Chen Hwang, Robert D. Lein, Daniel A. Morgan (2005). Noble Gases.  Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Wiley. pp. 343–383.  Weast, Robert (1984).  CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp.  E110.